Later Mughals

Later Mughals(1707 -1857 AD)

Bahadur Shah(1707-12)

Bahadur Shah ascended the Mughal throne after a war of succession among the three sons of Aurangzeb. SOon after he assumed the title Shah Alam I. During his reign there was a reconciliation with the Sikhs by taking Guru Gobind Singh into Mughal service. However, the truce with the Sikhs was cut short by the revolt of the Sikhs under Banda Bahadur after the death of Gobind. Even the Bundelas and the Jats were reconciled when Bahadur Shaha took their chiefs (Chatrasal and Churaman respectively) into his service. Later in his reigh, following the release of Shahu there was an outbreak of Martha civil war between Shahu and Tara Bai.

Jahndar shah (1712-13)

The war of succession among the four sons of Bahadur Shah resulted in the emergence of Jahandar as the successor due to the support given to him by Zulfiqar Khan (beginning of the practice of nobles acting as king-maker). Later, Jahandar was defeated by his nephew Farukh Siyar in 1713.

Farukh Siyar (1713-19)

the Sayyid brothers played a decisive role (Abdullah Khan and Hussain Ali Khan) in the succession of Farukh. His ascendence marked the beginning of the struggle for power between the emperor and the Sayyid brothers. (The elder of the two made the wazir and the younger the mir bakshi.) Farukh was murdered by the Sayyid brothers and Rafi-ud-darajat, grandson of Bahadur Shah, was made the emperor.

Muhammad Shah (1719-48)

After the death of Rafi, Muhammad Shah ascended the Mughal throne with the help of the Sayyid brothers. In 1720 some of the nobles conspired against the Sayyid brothers and murdered them. Muhammad's reign saw the foundation of the autonomous state of Hyderabad by Nizam-ul-Mulk in 1720. during 1738-39, Nadir Shah invaded India and captured Delhi. Further, the Mughals lost provinces west of the Indus, the Kohinoor diamond, the peacock throne and other possessions.

Ahmad Shah(1748-54)

His reign saw the first invasion of India by Ahmad Shah Abdali (ruler of Afghanistan and former general of Nadir Shah) in 1748. His Wazir, Imad-ul-Mulk, binded him and placed Alamgir II on the throne.

Alamgir II (1754-59)

He was killed in 1759 by his Wazir, Imad-ul-Mulk.

Shah Alam II (1759-1806)

He was the son of Alamgir II, and though the succeeded his father in 1759 he did not live in his capital in the initial years due to his fear of the wazir. He was defeated in the battle of Buxar in 1764. Capture of Delhi by the British in 1803 was followed by his death in 1806 as a prisoner of the British.

Akbar II (1806-37)

He conferred the title of 'Raja' on Ram Mohan Roy and requested the latter to go to England to plead for a hike in the emperor's pension.

Bahadur Shah II (1837-62)

He was the last Mughal Emperor. Deported to Rangoon in 1858 after the Revolt of 1857, hus death came in 1862.

CAUSES BEHIND DECLINE

The Mughal power declined due to the following causes:

• Mistakes of Aurangzeb.
• Wars of succession.
• Weak personalities of the later Mughals.
• Deterioration in the organisation and character of the Mughal nobility.
• Failure of the Mughal economy to satisfy the minimum needs of its population.
• Breakdown of Mughal administration and armed power.
• Foreign invasions.
• Absence of the spirit of political natinalism among the people of the Mugal empire.
• Inherent defects of hereditary despotism and centralised government.
• Indirect influence of religious reformers like the Sikh gurus, Ramdas (Maharshtra), Satnamis, Mahadawis, Raushaniyas and others.

MARATHA POWER UNDER THE PESHWAS

Balaji Viswanath (1713-20)

He began his career as a small revenue official who was given the title of 'Sena Karte' (marker of the army) by Shahu in 1708 and made the post the most important and powerful as well as hereditary. He played a crucial role in the civil war and was responsible for the final victory of Shahu by winning over almost all the Marathas sardarsto the side of Shahu. He concluded an agreement with the Sayyid brothers(1719) by which the Mughal emperor (Farukh Siyar) recognised Shahu as the king of the swarajya, released all his family members and allowed Shahu to collect chauth and sardeshmukhi form the six Mugal provinces of the Deccan.

Baji Rao I (1720-40)

Baji Rao, the eldest son of Balaji Viswantah, succeeded him as Peshwa at the young age of 20. He was ocnsidered the greatest exponent of guerrilla tactics after Sivaji and Maratha power reached its zenith under him.

His period saw the beinning of the system of confederacy and the rise of Maratha chiefs. Under the system, each prominent Maratha chief was assigned a territory as his sphere of influence, which he was supposed to conquer on his own and whihc he could administer autonomously. Consequently several Maratha families became prominent and got themselves entrenched in different parts of India - (a) the Gaekwad at Baroda, (b) the Bhosle at Nagpur, (c) the Holkars at Indore, (d) the Scindias at Gwalior and (e) the Peshwas at Poona.

After defeating and expelling the Siddhis of Janjira from the mainland (1722), he conquered Bassein and Salsette form the Portuguese (1733). He also defeated the Nizam-ul-Mulk near Bhopal and concluded the treaty of Durai Sarai by which the got Malwa and Bundelkhand form the latter (1733). He led innumerable successful expeditons into north India to weaken the Mughal empire and to make the Marathas the supreme power in India. He said 'Let us strike at the trunk of the withering tree and the branches will fall of themselves.'

Balaji Baji Rao (1740-61)

Popularly known as Nana Saheb, he succeeded hsi father at the age of 20. After the death of Shahu(1749), the management of all state affairs was left in his hands. Shahu died childless, and though he nominated Ramraja (a grandson of Rajaram) as his successor, the latter was imprisoned at Satara by the Peshwa on the suspicion that he was an imposter.

An agreement was reached between the Mughal emperor (Ahmed Shah) and the Peshwa (1752) that the latter would protect the Mughal empire from interneal and external (Ahmad SHah Abdali) enemies and the total revenues of Agra and Ajmer provinces. This agreement brought the Marathas in direct conflict with Ahmad Shah Abdali of Afghanistan.

The battle of Panipat (January 14, 1761) resulted in the death of the Marathas by Ahmad Shah Abdali and the death of Viswas Rao (son of Nana Shaed) and Sadasiv Rao Bhau (cousin of Nana Sahed) and several other Mratha leaders and 28,000 soldiers. The battle decided who was not to rule India instead of who was to. Nana Sahed died on hearing the news on June 23, 1761.

He was succeeded by Madhav Rao (1761-72), Narayana Rao(1733-95) and Baji Rao (1795-1818).

Maratha Confederacy

Origin and Causes

It originated as already mentioned, during the administration of hte second Peshwa, Baji Rao I. Compelled partly by the opposition of the Kshatriya section of the Mrathas led by the senapati Dabodi, and partly by the rapid expansion of Maratha domination in north as well as in south India. Peshwa Baji Rao I had to depend on the loyal support of his adherents with proven military capacity.

Rise and Growth

Peswhwa Baji Rao I put large areas under the control of his lieutenants, chief of whom were Raghuji Bhosle, Ranaji Scindia, Malhar Rao Holkar and Damaji Faekwad. These leaders formed the Maratha confederacy which , during the administration of Baji Rao, was held in strict control by the Peshwa nad carried his victories to Delhi and even into the Punjab.

Defects and Decline

The severe defeat of the Peshwa's army in the third battle of Panipat was followed by the death of Peshwa Balaji Rao himself. The succession disputes that ensued weakended the Peshwa's hold on the ambitious members of hte Mratha confederacy, which then became a serious disintegrating element in the Maratha state. The conflicts amongst its members, their intrigues and rivalries, especially between Holkar nad Scindia, made united action tamong them impossible and contributed much to he decline and fall of the Martha empire and its independence.

REGIONAL STATES: BENGAL(1717-72)

Murshid Quli Khan (1717-27)

He was appointed as Bengal's diwan by Aurangzeb (1700), as naib subahdar (deputy governor-1713) and later as subahdar (governor-1717) by Farukh Siyar. He de facto rule from 1700 was thus made de jure in 1717 (between 1700-07 Prince Azim, son of Bahadur Shah, was the governor. between 1707-13, Farukh Siyar, son of Azim was the governor).

He was also granted the governorship of Orissa by the emperor (Farukh Siyar) in 1719. He transferred his capital from Decca to Murshidabad. He gradually assumed autonomy, though continuing to pay tribute to the Mughal emperor.

He carried out the following reforms:

• Recognistaion of the finances- transfer of large parts of jaigir lands to khalisa (crown) lands, introduction of the system of revenue-farming and the like.
• Grant of Takkavi loans to peasants for personal use, improving agriculture, and payting land revenue in times of famines.
• Reorginisation of adminstration and giving equal opportunities of employment to Muslims and Hindus. (His policy of appointing local Hindu zamindars and moneylenders and money lenders as revenue farmers led to the rise and growth of a new landed aristocracy in Bengal).
• Expansion of trade and commerce by giving encouragement to Indian and foreign merchants, providing security to them on roads and rivers, checking private trade by officials,k preventing abuses in customs administration and so on.
• Foreign tading companies- maintaining strict control over their activities: preventing the servants of the East India Company form abusing the priviledges granted to the company by the Mughal farmans of 1691 (Aurangzeb's) and 1717 (Farukh Siyar')
• Establishment of law and order by suppressing the rebellious zamindars.

Shuja-ud-din (1727-39)

He was the son-in-law of Murshid. He continued the policies and reforms of Murshid. He was granted the governorship of Bihar as well as by the emperor (Muhammad Shah) in 1733 (from now on the nawabs of Bengal ruled over Bengal, Bihar, Orissa)

Sarfaraz Khan(1739-40)

Son of Shuja, he was murdered by Alivardi-Khan, the deputy governor of Bihar, in 1740.

Alivardi Khan (1740-56)

He legalised his usurpation by receiving a farman from emperor Muhammad Shah after paying him Rs two crore. During his reign there ware continuous incursions of the Marathas into Bengal. He brought peace with them by ceding the revenues of apart of Orissa(to Raghuji Bhonsle) and an annual payment of Rs 12 lakh as the chauth of Bengal (1751)

He prevented the English form misusing their privileges their factories at Calcutta and Chandranaogore respectively. Even before his death there had been disputes over succession even though he favoured and chose Siraj-ud-daula, the son of his youngest daughter. He refused to pay any tribute to the Mughal emperor when hte latter demanded (1746).

Siraj-ud-daula (1756-57)

He wrote letters to the British governor of Calcutta to demolish additional fortifications, and also to stop hostile activities such as their support to Shaukat Jang (son of Ghasti Begum and cousin brother of Siraj) who wnated to become the nawab, and giving protection to Rajballabh's family (supporter of Shakut).

The British refused to comply with his orders and he seized the English factory at Kasimbazar (June 4, 1756) and then Calcutta (June 15). The English escaped to Futla and Siraj returned to Murshidabad, leaving Calcutta in charge of Manikchand.

Black Hole Episode (June 20, 1756)

According to Holwell (an Englishman), 146 English prisoners were confined during the night in a small room but only 23 survived, the rest dying of suffocation in the night. This version has been questioned on several grounds. In any case, Siraj is no more held personally responsible for it.

This incident was followed by Siraj's defeat and execution of Shaukat Jang, who had recently acquired the farman for the governorship of Bengal from the titular Mughal Emperor, Alamgir II. Shaukat Jang had been conspiring with some Bengal chiefs and English to occupy the throne of Bengal. Soon after the British conspired with some leading men of the nawab's court (Mir Jafar-the mir bakshi, Manikchand-officer in charge of Calcutta, Omichand-a rich merchant of Calcutta, Jagat Seth- the famous banker of Bengal, and Rai Durlabh and Khadim Khan- important nobles).

Arrival of a stong contingent from Madras under Colonel Clive and Admiral Watson (December 14, 1756) resulted in the recovery of Calcutta by Clive (January 2, 1757) without any serious fighting.

Treaty of Alinagar(1757)

Calcutta was renamed Alinagar after its capture by Siraj-ud-daula on June 1, 1756. On 5 February 1757 the Nawab's men were worsted by small English force in a night attack under Robert Clive. This impelled the Nawab to come to an understanding and establish peace with the English four days later. The treaty comprised:

• a list of demands made by the Company;
• an agreement affirming to return to the status quo ante;
• a number of farmans and dastaks issued by the Nawab; and
• an agreement that 'as long, as he (the Nawab) shall observe his agreement, the English will always look upon his enemies as their enemies' and grant him all assistance in their power.

In sum, all the trade privileges held earlier by the Company stood confirmed, and these could bot be called into question. Additionally, the English were authorised to fortify Calcutta against possible French attack and to strike its own coins. While the Nawab agreed to make good all losses of the English had incurred and abide by other articles of the treaty, the English promised him their friendship and goodwil.

The traty was violated by the conquest of Chandranagore by the British in March, 1757. Siraj protested by offering protection to the French. The British reacted by conspiring (June, 1757) to replace Siraj. In the same year Watson's signature was forged by Clive to please Omichand, who wanted a bigger share for acting as the intermediary between the Britishh and the other Indian conspirators.

The Battle of Plassey (a place on the banks of the Bhagirathi) took place on June 23, 1757. This battle saw the treachery of Mir Jafar and Rai Durlabh; bravery of a small force under Mohanlal and Mir Madan; desertion of the Nawab's forces and escape of Siraj; and his capture and execution by Miran (son of Mir Jafar).

Mir Jafar( 1757-60)

He granted the right to free trade in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, and the zamindari of the 24 parganas to the British, besides paying them a sum of Rs 17.7 million as compensation for the attack on Calcutta, and many other 'gifts' to the British officials. His reign saw the beginning of the drain of wealth form India to Britain. He made futile efforts to replace the English at Bedara in 1759.

Mir Qasim (1760-63)

He granted the zamindari of Burdwan, Midnapore and Chittgong to the British officials, besides paying them Rs 2.9 million. He introduced several revenue and military reforms to strengthen his position. His reign saw the beginning of the conflict between the Nawab and the British for sovereign power. He transferred his capital form Murshidabad to Moghyr (1762). He stopped the misuse of the dastaks (free passes allowed to the company) and abolished all duties on internal trade against British wishes in order to protect the Indian traders (1763).

During his reign the Battle of Buxar (October 22, 1764) was fought between the British and the three allies (Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-daula of Awadh and Shah Alalm II). This battle ended in the defeat of the allies by the British forces under Major Hector Munro.

Mir Jafar (1763-65)

His reinstatement in 1763 by the British took place after the outbreak of the war with Mir Qasim. He died in 1765.

Najm-ud-daula (1765-72)

Najm, son of Mir Jafar, was made the nawab in 1765 and remained a puppet in the hands of the British during the period of 'Dual System of Government'. In 1772, he was pensioned off when the Company took over the direct charge of Bengal.

AWADH (1722- 1856)

Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk(1722-39)

He was appointed as the governor of Awadh by Emperor Muhammad Shah. Later he founded an autonomous sate there in 1722. He introduced several revenue and military reforms, thereby making Awadh economically and politically strong. He treated Hindus and Muslims equally in the matter of employment. He was summoned to Delhi at the time ot Nadir Shah's invasion. In 1739 he committed suicide for some unknown reason.

Safdar Jung (1739-54)

He was appointed as the wazir of the Mughal empire and granted the province of Allahabad as well by the Mughal emperor in 1748. From 1748, the nawabs of Awadh came to be known as the nawab wazirs, since Safdar and hsi successors held both the 'nawabship'of Awadh and the 'wazirship' of the Mughal Empire. His wars against the Rohillas, the Jats and the Marathas, resulted in the extension of his territories.

Shuja-ud-daula (1754-75)

Shuja-ud-daula (son of Safdar) succeeded to the nawabship of Awadh as weel as the wazirship of the Mughal empire (1754), He was involved in the Battle of Buxar (1764) in which he lost Allahabad and Kara; paid a huge indemnity to the British. He met Warren Hastings and concluded the Treaty of Benaras (1773), whereby Kara and Allahabad were sold to the Nawab; and British troops were stationed at Awadh to protect the Nawab, for which he had to pay a subsidy to the British. He defeated the Rohillas with the help of the British, and annexed Rohilkhand to Awadh in 1774.

Asaf-ud-daula (1775-97)

The succession of Asaf-ud-daula was soon followed by the traty of Faizabad(1755) between him and the British.

Treaty of Faizabad(1775)

The treaty , signed by him with the British soon after coming to power stipulated that:

• the contacting parties shall not encourage their peasants in committing hostilities and disturbances,
• the Nawab promised not to entertain or recieve Mir Qasim, the ex-subadhar of Bengal.
• the districts of Kara and Allahabad shall remain in Nawab's possession;
• for his defence the Nawab gave the Compnay sovereignty in perpetually over all the districts (Banaras, Ghazipur and Jaunpur) dependent upon Raja Chait Singh;
• the Nawab shall pay for a brigade of English troops, if stationed with him, a sum of Rs 2.6 lakh per month;
• if the Nawab is in need of assistance for the defence of any other of this territories, he would have to pay an extra amoutn.

For the new Nawab, the treaty proved to be an expensive arrangement, for while it increased his liabilities it sharply decreased his revenues.

Asaf-ud-daula transferred his capital from Faizabad to Lucknow in 1735. During his reign the Begums of Awadh (mother and grandmother of Asaf) were mistreated by the Nawab Wazir with the help of Warren Hastings (1781-1782), and huge amounts were extracted from them.

Wazir Ali (1797-98)

The period of Wazir Ali (son of Asaf) was too brief and uneventful.

Saadat Khan

He was the elder brother of Asaf and came to the throne in 1798 with the help of the British.

Saadat Ali

He signed a subsidiary treaty with Lord Wellesley in November 1801, by whcih the Nawab was deprived of about half of his territory for the maintenance of the subsidiary troops.

Wazir Ali Shah

When Awadh, was annexed by Lord Dalhousie in February, 1856, this last ruler of Awadh was pensioned off and deported to Calcutta;

HYDERABAD

Nizam-ul-mulk Asaf Jah (1724-48)

His first term as the viceroy of the Deccan was between 1713 and 1715. (His original name was Chinquilich Khan, but emperor Farukh Siyar conferred on him the tiles of 'Khan-i-Dauran' and later 'Nizam-ul-Mulk'). His second term as the viceroy of the Deccan fell between 1720 and 1722. His appointment as the wazir of the Mughal Empire (1722-24) by Muhammad Shah resulted in his disgust with Mughal Court politics and his march to the Deccan without waiting for the Emperor's permission (1724).

Foundation of the state of Hyderabad by the Nizam(1724); inability of the Mughal emperor to punish the Nizam; confirmation of teh Nizam in the Viceroyalty of teh Deccan and grant of the title of 'Asaf Jah' to him by the emperor (1725); practical independence of the Nizam, though the continued to recognise the emperor as his sovereign- are some of the major developments of this period.

The reforms initiated by the Nizam include the establishment of peace and security by suppressing all disaffected nobles and putting down theft and robbery, efforts to stop the plundering raids of the Marathas (though partially successful), and revival of agriculture and industry by giving incentives to farmers and craftsmen.

Nasir Jung (1748-50)

He was defeated and murdered by Muzaffar Jung (son of Nasir's sister and grandson of Nizam-ul-Mulk).

Muzaffar Jung (1750-51)

He acceded to the throne with help of the French. His rule came to an abrupt end with his accidental death.

Salabat Jung( 1751-60)

This third son of Nizam-ul-Mulk came to the throne with the help of the French.

However, the official historians of the dynasty do not treat Nasir, Muzaffar and Salabat as independent rulers, and consider Nizam Ali, the next ruler, as the legal successor of Nizam-ul-Mulk.

Other Nizams were Nizam Ali (1760-1803), Sikandar Jah (1803-29), Nasir-ud-daula(1829-57), Afjal-ud-daula (1867-69), Mahabat Ali Khan (1869-1911) and Osman Ali Khan (1911-49).

British Relations with the Nizams

The British relations with the Nizams involved the following

• British interference in the affairs of Hyderabad for the first time in 1750 when they supported Nasir Jung against Muzaffar Jung, and their failure.
• Conclusion of a friendship treaty by the British (Colonel Forde) with Salabat Jung, known as the Treaty of Masulipatam, 1759.
• Conclusion of an offensive-cum-defensive treaty, viz. Treaty of Hyderabad, 1766, by which the English obtained the five Northern Circars (Ellur, Siccacole, Rajahmundry, Mustafurnagar and Murtizanagar) from the Nizam in return for military assistance or the payment of an annual tribute; renewal of teh offensive-cum-defensive alliance by the Treaty of Hyderabad(1768).
• Neutrality of the Nizam in the Second Mysore War and his cooperation with the English in Third and Fourth Mysore Wars.
• Conclusion of Subsidiary Alliance between of all the territories that the Nizam had got as spoils of the third and fourth Mysore wars to the British for the maintenance of the subsidiary force in Hyderabad(1800).
• In 1853 Dalhousie coerced the Nizam to cede Berar in lieu of the subsidiary amount.
• Assistance of the Nizam to the British during the Revolt of 1857.

CARNATIC

Foundation of the autonomous state of Carnatic (which was earlier one of the subahs or provinces of the Mughals in the Deccan) with Arcot as its capital in the 1720's by Sadutullah Khan (who was its governor and was nominally under the control of the nizma of Hyderabad).

Succession of Dost Ali (nephew kof Saadutullah as the nawab; his murder by the Marathas in 1740; succession of Safar Ali (son of Dost Ali) and his murder by a relative - all these events invited the intervention of the Nizam in the affairs of the Carnatic. The latter appointed Anwar-ud-dinn as the Nawab of the Carnatic (1743).

Chanda Sahib came to the throne by murdering Anwar-ud-din in 1749 with the help of the French, but he was also killed by an ally of the British, who placed the son of Anwar, Muhammad Ali, on the thorne in 1752. Lord Wellesley pensioned off the last Nawab of Carnatic and annexed it in 1801.

MYSORE (1761- 99)

Haider Ali (1761-82)

Beginning his career as a soldier in the services of the Mysore state (which became independent under the Hindu Wodeyar Dynasty in 1565 after the fall of Vijaynagar Empire), he had a meritorious record as the faujdar of Dindigul. Training of the troops under him on western lines and establishment of a modern arsenal(1755) with the French help were his other early achievements. His success in defending Seringapatnam (capital of Mysore) against the Marathas in 1759 was rewarded by conferring the title of Fateh Haider Bahadur (brave victorious lion) on him by Nanjarajar (the Prime Minister who was the de fact ruler though Chikka Krishna Raja I continued to be the de jure ruler of Mysore.) Hadier overthrew Nanjarajar and assumed power in 1761, but continued to recognise Krishna Raja as the lawful ruler.

He conquered several territories- Coorg, Malabar, Bellary, Gooty, Cuddaph, etc. His administrative reforms also made Mysore one of the leading Indian powers. He fought the First Anglo-Mysore War and the Second Anglo-Mysore War and died (1782) due to cancer during the course of the war.

Tipu Sultan (1782-99)

Succeeding Haider, he continued the second war with British till 1785,. He fought the Third Anglo-Mysore War (1799) and died while fighting the British.

His economic reforms

He was the only Indian ruler to have understood the importance of economic strength as the foundation of military strength. His reforms include attempts to introduce modern industries by importing foreign experts and extending state support to many industries; sending ambassadors to France, Turkey, Iran and Pegu to develop foreign trade; attempts to set up a trading company on the European lines; introduction of a new system of coinage, new scales of weights and measures, and a new calendar.

Revenue reforms

They include attempts to increase the state income by the abolition of the Jagir system, and also by reducing the hereditary possessions of the plligars (fedual chiefs); attempts to improve the position of the peasantry by checking collection of illegal cesses, and by granting remission whenever the need arose.

Military reforms

He organised the infantry on the European lines and made attempts to build a modern navy- establishment of two dockyards.

His interest in French Revolution can be seen in his planting of a Tree of Liberty at Seringapatam and becoming a member of the Jacobin club.

PUNJAB(1792-1849)

Rise of Sikh community under the Sikh Gurus was followed by disorder in Punjab following the invasions of Ahmad Shah Abdali, particularly the last one in 1767. Then came the organistaion of the Sikhs into 12 misls (confederacies) in Punjab and their rise into prominence.

Ranjit Singh (1792-1839)

Born to the chief of the Sukerchakia misl in 1780, he succeeded to the chieftainship in 1792 as a minor with his mother as the regent and assumed of full charge in 1796.

Capture of Lahore (1799) with the help of Zaman Shah of Afghanistan and Amritsar(1802) where he added the golden dome to the Golden Temple; assumption of the title of Maharaja of Lahore (1799); gradual establishment of his control over all the Sikh misls west of the Sutlej; occupation of Ludhiana (1806) were his early achievements.

Treaty of Amritsar (1809)

Metcalfe was sent to negotiate a treaty with Ranjit Singh for thwarting a possible French advance into India. The parleys were protracted as both parties devised ways and means to further their won selfish ends. British advance coupled with the adroitness of the young Metcalfe who assured the Sikh chief that he could make conquests in other directions without British armed presence coupled with the fear that some more Punjab chiefs might flock to the British banner and seek their protection made the Sikh ruler to sign a treaty. The treaty, signed formally at Amritsar on April 25, 1809, provided for:

• perpetual friendship and most favoured power treatment for Ranjit Singh;
• recognition of Ranjit's sovereignty over all territories north of the Sutlej; and
• permission to keep troops on the left bank of the river only to the extent quired for the internal security of the territory.

Besides the occupation of Kangra (1809), Attock (1813), Multan (1818), Kahsmir (1819), Peshawar (1823) and many other places like Tonk, Kohat, Bannu, etc., he acquired Kohinoor diamond from Shah Shuja of Afghanistan after giving him protection in 1814. (It was taken from the Mughals by Nadir Shah, from whom inherited by Shah Shuja who belonged to Abdali's dynasty. After the second Anglo-sikh War, the British acquired it and took to England where it still remains.) Meeting between Ranjit Singh and Lord Bentinck took place in 1831.

Conclusion of the Tripartite Traty by Ranjit with Lord Auckland (Governor-General of India) and Shah Shuja (1838) to invade Afghanistan and to place Shah Shuja on its throne was followed by the outbreak of the First Afghan War (1838-42). But Ranjit refused to permit the British troops to march through his territory during the war.

Ranjit Singh's reforms

They include organistaon of his army on western lines with the help of Europeans; recruitment of not only Sikhs but also Gorkhas, Biharis, Pathans, Punjabi Muslims, etc., as soldiers; establishment of modern foundries to manufacture cannon, thus making his army the seocnd best in Asia, the first being that of the British; appointment of able Hindus and Muslims as ministers and commanders.

Avitabile (1791-1850)

Born in south Italy, he reached Lahore via Kabul and was employed by Ranjit Singh in 1826. A successful but ruthless administrator, he ruled by fear and torture. Appointed governor of Wazirabad in 1829, he always added a civil governorship to the command of a military brigade. Five years later (1834) Avitabile became governor of Peshawar. His presence at Peshawar both before and after the First Anglo-Afghan War proved to be indispensable to the British, for the force furnished by Ranjit Singh under the conditions of the Tripartite Treaty were more inclined to fight against than for the British. In 1842, in the wake of their retreat from Kabul, he rendered the East India Company troops all possible assistance.

He continued serving under Ranjit Singh's successors, but soon sought permission to leave, which was granted in 1843. Behind the scenes he is said to have been in treasonable correspondence with Henry Lawrence, giving the British useful information about the deployment of Sikh forces.

Ranjit's successors

His successors were Kharak Singh. Nao Nihal Singh, Sher Singh, and Dalip Singh

THE AFGHANS

Nadir Shah's invasions

Nadir Shah captured and sacked Delhi in early 1739 returning to Persia laden with loot equal to three years revenue as well as the treasures of the Kohinoor diamond and Peacock Throne. But disappointment dogged his footsteps from this time forward; his temper soured to vindictiveness and finally crossed the verge of sanity, When he was assassinated in 1747 he was the most hated man of his age. His death was the signal for the break-up of Persia. The troubles which began ended with the emergence of the Kajar dynasty; the ever-turbulent Afghans broke away to form a new succession state. The net result of Nadir Shah's incursion into India was the permanent loss of Kabul.

Rise of Abdali

The Afghans found a leader of genius in Ahmad Shah Abdali. He would have remained the ruler of a vigorous people in a barren country but for one of the periodical eras of political confusion in the Indian plains. Like Babur he had the ability to conquer, but unlike Babur he lacked the political sagacity and skillful agents to make good his conquest. Babur had adventurers from Persia and Turkistan, to draw on as well as Afghan chiefs, For the most part they were untroubled by fanaticism and were, used to dealing with diverse people and creeds. the Mughuls were 'kings by profession' and their officers imperialists by instinct; the Afghans were turbulent and fanatical hillmen who knew how to conquer but not how to conciliate. They could die for a cause, but not compromise for it.

Abdali's Invasion

Ahmad Shah's first attempt on the empire failed at Sirhind in 1748. If the Mughul empire had continued to be vigorous, no more would have been heard of him east of the Indus; However, the Emperor Muhammad Shah died the same year and was succeeded by his son Ahmad Shah. Under his nerveless control in delhi dissensions revied and Ahmad Shah Abdali was quick to take advantage of them.

In 1749 he appeared again, but was bought off by the governor of Lahore. In 1751-52 he appeared again and capture Lahore after a four months' siege. This time the imperial government itself bought him off by allowing the cession of Panjab